Political Aspects of Criminal Justice Essay

Introduction A lament subject arbitrator transcription in any untaught is enshrined in the grounds executive sev sequencelizees. It is usu tot every last(predicate)yy enshrined on the judiciary arm of the organization and bags whole sad cases and decides who should be prosecuted. (Shaffer & Herington, p36-40) The brutal arbiter establishment is in any case entrusted with the structures that comprise the unanimous jurist constitution.It comes up with the provisions that cater for return of new crimes. It also enforces the laws to make sure that anyone complies with them to maintain and enhance hunting lodge in the society. The twist justice formation is comprised of all the justice systems obligation from the local to the national levels (Bonnie, p688).The degree of criminal offence determines the structure that should handle it. Minor crimes fecal matter be handled at the lowest level, for instance, by police force who maintain order by arresting and assignin g some punishments to the offenders and in the end releasing them. This system involves cooperation of the people at the grassroots level. (Alexander, p67-78) Criminal justice system enhances internal protection of the citizens. Citizens be protected from the internal enemies who be kayoed to cause harm to them. It also checks the excesses of the offenders and instills fear in them. This system has played an important role in tracking down criminals and ensuring that justice is done on the offenders.For instance, murderers, robbers, drug traffickers, rapists have been tracked down and arrogate behind bars, thanks to the criminal justice system. This heightens security in the e distinguish and promotes the freedom of movement. raft loafer move from one point to another(prenominal) without the fear of being held hostage, kidnapped, raped or killed. As a issuance people are free to pursue their common good and can even engage in notes generating activities or other business es that promote their livelihood. (Bonnie, p688) Criminal justice system prevents war or clashes within a country. A sense of peace and harmony is maintained and hence they are able to maintain positive interactions. As a result, a gummy society is created and everyone is able to pursue their businesses. (Neilstrong, p40-p40) Criminal justice system has evolved everywhere the years from a primitive era to an advanced era. The executive branch is divided into three stages at primary and secondary level. The three eras can be summarized as traditional (1776- 1899), transitional era which took place amidst (1900-1927) and finally nationalization era which fell between 1964 to present snip. (Bonnie, p688) conventional Era (1776-1899) This is the earliest era of criminal justice system in America. It details the most primitive form of criminal justice system. During this snip the justice system was devolved and people were in control of the most decisions affect the country as well as the giving medication (Shaffer & Herington, p36-40). During this time, the chairperson was not in control of the country since decisions were do by the citizens. The association obdurate what problems was affecting them and prioritize them and finally came up with a modality on how to solve them. The decisions were not central, that is, left to the central presidency. During this time, people were make itn proof on how their money was spent and so the executive would account for every single penny spent. The community based team which was in presence of solving problems being experienced in the community were prosecutors, police word of honor and probation officers, judges, church leaders, community residents and school leaders (Shaffer & Herington, p36-p40).These leaders were presenting the local community. altogether the decisions and plans were first handled by them before being handed over to the taller(prenominal) leave. It is worth noting that at this time th e process of decision making was slow.This is because of the umteen a(prenominal) levels that a court case had to go through before termination a judgment. The judgments passed were either very light or too harsh. For instance, slaves were defeat and tortured. Some even died in the process for committing very mild offences. in that respect were no laws protecting them, and therefore they fell victims of abuses. If a slave was off by his master, no action was taken against him, he was not put away. Unfortunately, it promoted a lot of evil against slaves who were blacks at this time. (Shaffer, p36-p40) The justice system at that time did not cater for many crimes being committed. For instance, there were no efficacious systems put in place to punish administration officials. in that respect was clutch without trial and in most cases some forms of dictatorship were evident (Alexander, p67-78). There were no rehabilitation centers for criminals and hence any criminal was eithe r imprisoned and was not given a chance to reform and become a offend person.The only advantage with this era was that it was not dominated by the presidency. Peoplehad a louder voice and were easily heard by the authority and therefore their needs were sorted out fast. The criminal justice system was felt even by those at very low levels.transitional Era (1900-1927) During this time, there were some changes being felt by the people. The decadency of the personnels of the criminal justice system was not devolved like in the past. This era progressd a much centralized form of government. The decisions began to be do at the top and gradually trickled down to the bottom. The criminal justice system stopped being too harsh on the citizens (Bonnie, p688).The citizens were beaten and locked up in the cells, and there were no authentic mechanisms to investigate crime. Most expert crimes were left unattended and forensic laboratories were at the initial stages of development. Durin g this time, however the taxpayers money was used to build better prison cells and therefore the torture house were done away with. It promoted fair trials and many people began to be prosecuted including the Whites. The cells promoted decency in handling human beings. (Neilstrong, p40-40) The government began educating people about change and development. meet government structures that deal with crime were set up. The people who handled criminal cases were more educated and understood the system better. There were open policies of discussion and leading was promoted in all structures and systems of government. The leaders served as models to be copied by small citizens and therefore the justice system was streamlined. alone the prosecutions were based on cover evidence (Alexander, p67-78). The most evident thing about this era was that the criminal justice system was going through a process of change. People were hungry for better systems of government.They started to believ e in the government since it was holding all the resources that they needed. They believed that only the government had the power to cater for all their needs. For the people to assure this change they had to give up some of their ambitions. Power without resources was nothing. Without the money and power structures, their money would always remain weak and they would not be able to guard themselves against enemies. The state was gradually being allowed to be in control.This is because all power was vested on it and they had higher control on everyone and every department. At this time prosecutors became generalists and started operating out of their decentralized offices. This way they were able to tight work with the police and the society on important issues that mattered most to the residents locally. (Shaffer, p36-40) During this era, when people from all the corners of the country felt angry and isolated from the government as well as their representatives, then the better o ption was to move contiguous to the community whereby they felt that the community was responding well. However, the fear was that, the community could not give them much but only the state would. In America, some cities, for instance, rising York began to experiment with the neighboring courts.The court did not only give out sanctions but also offer one stop shop for a number of services both social and economic. For example, drugs for treatment. This was aimed at coming up with solutions to solve the problems present at that time. There was proliferation of courts that dealt with drug cases in the whole country. This was a reflection of growth in appreciation and coming up with tailor made responses to answer to the concerns made locally. (Neilstrong, p40-p40) At this level however, community policing was evident and people were responding well to the status of the government and cooperation was promoted in all areas. communization Era (1964 to Present) At this era all the decis ions were made at the national level. The criminal justice system was centralized and all the decisions were made by top government officials. The presidency at this time fake the role of Commander In Chief of the Armed Forces. The sitting president could not be prosecuted because he was the overall head. If charges were brought against them he gave a no prosecution order. This is called nolle prosequi. That is, he could not be prosecuted at any time. All the political decisions related to the criminal activities were handled by the state. The criminal justice system became more and more bureaucratic and lengthy. There was a backlog of cases since all the criminal cases were under one system. (Alexander, p67-78) Nationalization era developed prisons and new ways of transforming the prisons was invested. Forensic laboratories were employed to investigate any role of criminal case. There were more developed and modern rehabilitation centers. non any crime could land a person in pr ison. They came up with new techniques of measuring criminal cases. The people who were found to measure up to them were referred to rehabilitation centers to reform them. (Shaffer, p36-40) The domination of the presidency and the desire to control the criminal justice system however promoted many evils in the state. For example many offences committed by the president have not been looked into due to his lush powers. He is simply above the law. It also bred other evils such as assassination crimes. Most presidents have been known to assassinate their rivals if they pose a threat to their presidency. In essence, the presidency has abused the criminal justice system. All the powers have been taken away from the local government and it has rendered it a toothless dog as far as criminal justice system is concerned. (Bonnie, p688) From the nationalization era it is evident that the presidency has moved to dominate the criminal justice system on most of its issues. This can be explained from the inordinate powers vested on the presidency. It practically controls all the other arms of the government, which means it is untouchable. (Neilstrong, p40-p40) The separate with this situation is that it has on many occasions abused the powers and privileges vested on it. The presidency influences all the decisions made at the parliamentary level and influences the powers of the judiciary, and other organizations which make do the work and activities of the government.For instance, organizations which are supposed to investigate the governments unethical behavior. When investigations are made and concluded, they are never released. This is done to protect the envision of the present government and the presidency. Offenders of such crimes are never made public. contempt the government having enough liabilities, it is always made to appear perfect and blameless. Nationalization era has bred very corrupt government officials. (Alexander, p67-78) The US was not better in th e earlier period. This is because the state kind of government could not tally the resources closer to the people. They have very many states and a state government could not devolve the resources available equitably and equally. The national government is therefore better and improved the economy as well as expanding the parliamentary space. The people now have more control of the local government and they can control the resources which have been placed at their disposal. For a country (nation) as big as US only a federal kind of government can work. A centralized state would encourage community policing which cannot be applied in the modern world. (Bonnie, p688)Conclusion scorn the gains of a state government, I believe that for a growing state the federal kind of government is more desirable. This is because people can gravel resources faster and more easily. In addition, it is not cumbersome and neither is it bureaucratic and hence decisions are easily made faster and much more conveniently. Federal government is the way to go since it discourages crime at high levels of government as well as corruption. The citizens are more in touch with their leaders and they can easily express themselves.Works Cited.Alexander, S. political Government To What Extent Do Governments, Control Systems of Government, Harvard Press, 2003 (P67-p78) 2nd EdBonnie, B. community of interests Criminal Justice What Community Policing Teaches Harts Mitch. D.C, Washington, 2004 (p 688) Vol INeilstrong, B. Federalism and State Government The counselling to Go, Palgrave Publishers, United States of America, 2002 (p40-p40)Shaffer, S& Herington, C. Aspect of Good Governance, Harvard University Press, UK 2001 (p34-p40) Vol I 2nd Ed.

Genzyme Summary Essay

Genzyme was founded in 1981, Sanofi purchased the company in 2011. They went public in 1986, fostering 27 million dollars. Genzyme startet as a start up participation by scientists studying genetic ally inherited enzyme diseases. Their strategy didnt accent on the blockbuster drugs akin some other biotechnology companies but drugs for obsolete diseases. To developing a drug, it takes 10-14 years at the cost of around 800 million. provided the blockbuster drugs had 1 billion dollars revenue. Genzyme has received several honor awards like national medal of technology.The food and drug administration open in 1983 the Orphane drug act giving seven years trade exclusivity to developers of drugs for elevated diseases. This gave Genzyme big advantage when it comes to clinical trials, advertising and sales, it does not requires a lot. Their first success was the Ceredase drug- to treat the Gauchers disease. It was sold to over 4000 patients, with annual revenue of 800 million doll ars. They had different way of manufacturing and sales compare to other companies. They did not do licensing to large pharmaceutical company. Genzyme was the worlds third largest biotech company in 2006 only profiting of rare diseases.Reflection of the case* Avoided blockbuster market and heavy managementGood strategic to focus on a turning point market instead of the blockbuster market. The degree of existing rivalry and insertion barriers was low. Henri Termeer took a risk in moving to a start up company but with his experience and expertise, the company went stronger and independent.* First ones to market and the exclusivityGenzyme entered a small, untapped market. Being the first biotech company that focus on rare diseases and having the market exclusivity made them leading biotech company. They had the ability to identify almost all customers. They had big advantage when is comes to clinical trials, restrictions, FDA and small numbers of test patients required.

Referencing and Paraphrasing

Preparation for mandatory test Introducing Referencing Referencing is the key means by which you stick out avoid plagiarism and is central to the pull of faculty memberian honesty. The basic view is that any time you expenditure schooling, opinions or boys from a nonher outset you learn to procedure referencing to ac go to sleepledge the archetype causation. Using soulfulness elses ideas without clearly light uponing that this is what you thrust done is an obvious breach of the principles of trust and pallidness which support academic endeavour.It basis somewhattimes be difficult to know whatyou atomic turn of events 18 enquired to extension service, and some students mistakenly believe that it is lone(prenominal) academic publications which need referencing. In feature any time you use individual elses ideas or breeding you need to compose if you do non, you ar plagiarising. The following lists help you view when referencing is necessary and when it i s not. When complemental an assignment, the following point of adverts moldiness be referenced * books and textual matterbooks journal articles * newspapers and magazines * pamphlets and brochures * films, documentaries, TV programs and advertisements * web varlets and all computer- base re solutions including intercommunicates and blog posts, podcasts and vodcasts * letters and emails * personal interviews * lecture and tutorial notes * communications with lecturers, tutors and other professionals (emails and conversations) * reproduced * tables * charts * graphs * formulae * diagrams * illustrations * images * photographsWhen completing an assignment on that point is no need to reference * your cause observations for example, in the experiment results office of a subject bea * your testify writing closely your experience experiences for example, in a reflective journal * your receive thoughts, comments or conclusions * your own analysis or evaluation for example, in the opportunities and risks and recommendations segmentations of a report * your own interpretations of the signifi rear endce of data or facts * your relation of data or facts to the argument of a report or essay for example, in the recommendations section of a report * habitual experienceCommon knowledge There argon some kinds of information that do not need to be referenced. Common knowledge that is, knowledge held in common in the public domain does not need to be referenced. For example, it is common knowledge that Australia is a democracy, and therefore a statement to this effect in an assignment does not need to be referenced. However, if you are discussing nuances of opinion from various Australian political parties on a topical issue, these views need to be referenced because they represent specialised knowledge.If in doubt about what can be assumed as common knowledge, consult your unit of study coordinator or tutor. The validity of information As a general rule, only credible sources should be used in university assignments. Information and ideas from websites, general members of the public and other students is not necessarily credible. credibleness stems from a quality assurance process. For example, articles in academic journals are commonly peer reviewed, and urinate therefore been by means of such a process. University lecturers and tutors encounter been through an equivalent process.The internet does not have a exemplar quality assurance process. Information is frequently published with no checks for the true or substantiation. For these reasons you need to make sure that you assess the validity of information sourced from the web. Why should I reference? Beyond issues of academic honesty there are other good reasons to reference. As well as percentage you to locomote in an honest manner, by making clear what is the work of others, referencing ensures that your marker knows what is your own work and that your assessments are marked fairly.Three good reasons to reference * Referencing is central to the break a instructionment of your own knowledge and ideas * Many students feel mazed about what is expected in terms of their use of sources and the presentation of their own ideas. While you are expected to present your own ideas in an assignment, a personal response to the assignment question is not adequate. Your marker requires for consequence that you have developed your ideas afterward close consideration of existing academic knowledge and ideas.In order to demonstrate that your ideas are based on extreme question, you need to refer to all relevant sources and present them in such a manner that you document their influence. * Referencing allows the marker to clearly cite your own voice * An important function of referencing is that it makes clear where a event fact or idea has come from. Since your assignment will include a mix of your own ideas and ideas and information from other sources, it is crucial that your marker can easily identify the difference.If you do not include references, or do not adequately and accurately reference, you will be implying that ideas and information are your own when they are not. This is plagiarism. * References are an important signpost for your marker In an assignment, your marker is emotional stateing for evidence that * you have understood and assimilated ideas and information from your sources * you are able to analyse the significance of the ideas and nformation from your sources in the context of your assignment for example, in the opportunities and risks section of a report * you are able to evaluate the telling relevance of the ideas and information from your sources in the context of your assignment for example, in the recommendations section of a report * you are able to develop an argument based on the ideas and information from your sources for example, in an essay. Good referencing helps your marker to clearly identif y these qualities in your work. When should I reference? Knowing when you need to reference is only the archetypal step in avoiding plagiarism.The second step involves learning how to fuse the information and ideas of others into your own work. Whenever you incorporate source material into your assignment you have a choice to use the same exact linguistic process as the pilot light, or to use your own words to bear the idea or information. Summarising and para diction offer alternatives to development submit credit entrys and ensure that you are able to develop your own voice and make clear your own parting. Direct quote A right away character reference is a verbatim reproduction of someone elses words, either written or spokenWhen you choose to use a aspire reference work in your assignment, you need to * Enclose the train quotation in single quotation marks . , ensuring that all the words you have reproduced are included * Double-check your quotation to ensure that it is a word-for-word replication of the original and that the punctuation is also the same * Include the writes family name (or source name), publication date and page number, straightway after the quotation (or within the sentence where you use the quotation) * consider that the referencing dilate are accurate your reader needs to be able to deposit the original using this information.Quoted special words or phrases also need to be en unlikeable in quotation marks, even though they may not express an entire idea or sentence. A word of warning You should not rely too heavily on direct quotations in your assignments. While direct quotations can be useful in ensuring that you accurately transcribe a complex idea, if you use too many direct quotations in your writing you are letting your sources speak instead of establishing your own voice. This makes it difficult for your reader to ascertain what you have understood and what contri muchoverion you are making.When using source s it is important to ensure that you frequently re-express ideas in your own words and phrasing. Using your own words Paraphrasing and summarising are alternatives to using direct quotations, and allow you to express your sources information and ideas in your own words. Paraphrasing A paraphrase is a short section of text that retains the sources original meaning but expresses it in una alike(p) words. In order to paraphrase you need to do more than simply transpose one or two words.To paraphrase legitimately, you need to first understand the original meaning, and then express this meaning in your own words, phrasing and sentences. Here is an example of how to paraphrase. The following passage is taken from page clxxx of Schminke, M. , Arnaud, A. and Kuenzi, M. 2007, The power of respectable work climates ? , Organizational Dynamics, vol. 36, no. 2, pp. 171-186. Moral sensibility can be improved through schooling. To enhance moral awareness, organizations first need to beg o ff clearly what constitutes unethical and illegal deportment, and to clarify desire employee behaviours with respect to all organizational stakeholders.This requires clearly communicating ceremonious, comprehensive moral philosophy policies and procedures (e. g. , ethics write in codes) to employees at all levels, including managers, so as to provide formal boundaries for decisions, activities, and behaviours in the organization. However, awareness training should also probe the informal colourise areas of comprehensive ethics policies. It may do so through the use of scenario studies, games, and interactive videos, which include ethical dilemmas that employees may face in their workplace.Such training opportunities allow individuals sufficient exposure to the practice of identifying ethical issues in pragmatic settings. Acceptable paraphrase beneath is a legitimate rephrasing of the original text Organizations can take steps to improve the ethical aesthesia of their employ ees by providing clear guidance on what is appropriate ethical behaviour and where the grey informal difficulties may lie through variety of methods including dilemmas, games and scenarios (Schminke, Arnaud and Kuenzi 2007). unsufferable paraphrase Below is an unacceptable paraphrase.Rather than a legitimate rephrasing, this is a sight of direct quotes from the original, which have just been organised in a different order Moral sensitivity can be improved through training, which can be delivered through the use of scenario studies, games, and interactive videos, which include ethical dilemmas that employees may face in their workplace (Schminke, Arnaud and Kuenzi 2007). Unacceptable paraphrase Below is another unacceptable paraphrase. In this case, it is unacceptable because it merely involves the alteration of a few words in the originalIn enhancing moral awareness, organizations should explain clearly what constitutes unethical and illegal behaviour, and specify desired employee behaviours for all stakeholders in the organisation (Schminke, Arnaud and Kuenzi 2007). trace As well as highlighting your understanding, paraphrasing information and ideas allows you to integrate them more easily into your own writing. Summarising A summary is an compend of the main or most relevant ideas presented in a source. When summarising, be absolutely sure to use your own words, phrasing and sentence structuresHint Summarising can be useful when you want to focus on particular ideas or particular information in a source. When paraphrasing and summarising, you need to * Ensure that the words, phrasing and sentence structure are your own. If you paraphrase or resume and your words are too similar to the sources, this is plagiarism. * Include the authors family name (or source name) and publication date immediately after the paraphrase or summary (or within the sentence). * Ensure that the referencing details are accurate your reader needs to be able to locate the original source using this information.Remember, your own contribution includes your ability to clearly express someone elses ideas or information in your own words and demonstrate understanding of the relevance of this information in the context of your assignment. How do I reference? There are a variety of different referencing systems used to acknowledge sources in academic texts. Often, within a apt(p) unit of study, one particular system will be favoured so it is important that you check with your unit of study coordinator. It is imperative that you choose a single recognised system and use it consistently and accurately passim your assignment.This includes paying close attention to the presentation of referencing details, including the order of information, and the precise use of commas, in full stops, italics and quotation marks. The Harvard referencing system as specified in The University of Sydney demarcation School Referencing Guide is used in The University of Sydney strain School. This section provides a number of examples of how to reference sources, both in-text (i. e. , in the body of your work) and in the incident reference list. Reference lists and bibliographiesA reference list only includes the sources directly referred to in the body of your work. A bibliography includes all works that have informed your work, both those directly referred to in the body of your work and those not. Note Most assignments require a reference list only. If you are unsure whether or not a bibliography is also required, please check with your unit of study coordinator or your tutor. Direct quotation When a word-for-word quotation is integrated into the text of your essay, you must always provide referencing details in the sentence where the quotation is introduced.In both the reference list and the bibliography you must also provide full details of thesource quoted. To reference a short direct quotation of about 30 words or less, place single change commas around the authors words, and place his/her family name, the date of publication, and the page number in brackets after the quotation, for example Truly difficult ethical conflicts in the work place exist between ones late held, subjectively informed relational ways of being in the conception and more objectively fashioned general rules (Ladkin 2006, p. 8). The corresponding entry in the reference list would look like this Ladkin, D. 2006, When deontology and utilitarianism arent enough how Heideggers popular opinion of dwelling might help organisational leaders resolve ethical issues, diary of Business Ethics, vol. 65, no. 1, pp. 87-98. Below is an instance of using a direct quotation to refer to someone elses idea in your writing Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari send off an unusual idea of philosophy. They define philosophy as the art of forming, inventing, and fabricating concepts (1994, p. ). This idea is useful for exploring ways in which various forms of intellectual work can be seen not as a reflection on the world, but as an opportunity to intervene in the world. The corresponding entry in the reference list would look like this Deleuze, G. and Guattari, F. 1994, What is philosophy? , Verso, London. Quotations which are more than about 30 words must be set asunder in the text by indenting in a block format, without using quotation marks. A font size one point littler can also be used.Below is an instance of using a direct quotation to introduce someone elses argument. Rowold and Heinitz (2007) make a bring together between trust and the transformation of pursuit in the following way In addition, if the leader is a trustworthy model and represents a code of conduct, transformation occurs more easily. As a consequence of the leaders charismatic qualities and behaviours, followers identify with the leader. In turn, values and proceeding standards are more likely to be adapted by followers.Finally, transformational and charismatic leaders foster perf ormance beyond expectations (p. 122). The corresponding entry in the reference list would look like this Rowold, J. and Heinitz, K. 2007 Transformational and charismatic leadership assessing the convergent, divergent and criterion validity of the MLQ and the CKS ? , The leadership Quarterly, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 121-133. Quoting a fact Whenever you include a fact that is not commonly known information in your writing, you must use in-text referencing to identify the source.For example The recent global financial crisis has led to significant rises in unemployment levels throughout the developed world. The November 2009 Australian unemployment rate of 5. 7 per cent (Australian confidence of Statistics 2009) is a welcome sign that the economy may be on the road to recovery. The corresponding entry in the reference list would look like this Australian Bureau of Statistics 2009, 6202. 0-Labour Force Australia November 2009, viewed 15 December 2009, http//www. abs. gov. au/AUSSTATS/em ailprotected sf/mf/6202. 0 Paraphrasing and summarising If you use your own words to express a sources ideas or information, you must still reference the source by providing the authors surname and the date of publication in brackets at the end of the relevant passage. For example Marketing potentially calumniatory products, like genetic tests, poses a challenge for corporate decision-makers in making sure they appropriately balance the benefits and harm of their product in their publicizing (Williams-Jones and Ozdemir 2008).The corresponding entry in the reference list would look like this Williams-Jones, B. and Ozdemir, V. 2008, Challenges for corporate ethics in marketing genetic tests, Journal of Business Ethics, vol. 77, no. 1, pp. 33-44. Referencing according to the type of assessment task Although you need to reference in all university assignments (unless it is explicitly stated otherwise), what you are expected to reference and how references must be expressed depends o n the type of assessment task. For example, research essays require full referencing.However, other assessments, such as a closed book exam, are unlikely to require you to memorise entire quotations and page numbers. Reference requirements in some assessment tasks for instance, oral presentations are not as clear, and in such cases you should consult your unit of study coordinator or tutor. A note on using referencing systems This module helps you understand the principles and practice of academic honesty. It is essential that you learn and use the referencing system prescribed by each unit coordinator for any particular course of study.

Earth from Space Essay

The Ameri contribute astronaut Edgar Mitchell once described the macrocosm from out set as a sparkling unforgiving and white jewel, a light, delicate sky-blue welkin outlined with swirling veils of white amidst a thick sea of black mystery. Indeed, the public in space looks like a lonely sphere with neighbors illogical by vast blanks different than its one moon. More importantly, one can b arly disclose the subtle details of the major planets geographical features except the wide oceans and its drink eat mass surrounded by water.From a distance, one cannot tell for certain that in that lonely planet lived billions of raft going about their own ways day and night. If there are authorities who fit the role of describing the earth in space, no other groups of people can best fit that role other than the astronauts who for at least once or for a few times were adapted to catch a glimpse of our planet. Aleksei Lenov, a USSR astronaut, said that the earth was absolutely rou nd while American astronaut Charles Walkers forethought was immediately caught by a panorama of brilliant deep blue ocean with shades of green and grey and white upon reaching outer space.There are lock up countless others who had the rare opportunity to lay claim a look at the earth from such a distance afforded by the outer space. In general, it can be said that the astronauts took a great deal score of the more general features of the earth, focusing on the earth as a whole and not in terms of the multitude of land and water varieties that comprise it on closer inspection. That perhaps owes up to the event that the view of the earth from outer space barely pulls the viewer a broader look at our planet.Thus, the view of the earth in space all affords us several aspects of the earth to describe. For instance, one can easily recognize the confabulatemingly boundless bodies of water occupying the larger regions of the earth. Take for instance the excrescence of the Pacific Ocean as comm alone illustrated in numerous books, magazines and scientific journals. Since much of the earth is covered in water, and much of the planets water comes from the Pacific Ocean, it is only expected from astronauts to immediately take notice of the Pacific.Satellite images also reveal how almost a third of the earth is comprised of those vast quantities of sea water, thereby prompting observers to not omit to see the deep blue blanket of water surrounding the lands and the people. More importantly, perhaps it is only through the view from outer space are we able-bodied to see the drastic effects of every tree cut down and a whole range of rainforests razed by fires and human activities.We whitethorn not be able to recognize the massive effect of these things skillful from the earth, but from outer space one may not fail to acknowledge the largeness of the scale of environmental degradations which look at occurred through the years. It is only from that view from the outer space that we are able to see as well the vastness of the deserts that may soon become of the forests destroy from cutting trees for daily human consumption.Although astronauts say there are still green parts of the earth as the view from outer space reveals, it can hardly be denied that much of the parts of the earth have remained the same over the ultimo years, especially when the view of the earth from the past is compared to what it is today. Indeed, the chance to view the earth from outer space is the chance of a lifetime as only a very few selected snatch of individuals are given that rare moment.Moments like those experienced by the astronauts give us accounts of how our planet looks like, including its more general land, water and atmospheric features which, when taken altogether, offer a comprehensive understanding of the only living planet in the solar system thus far. Reference Hamilton, C. J. (1997). Earth from Space. Retrieved July 4, 2008, from http//www. so larviews. com/eng/earthsp. htm

Frankenstein and Terror Essay

A classic gothic myth emphasises concern and terror. It has the presence of the spiritual, the placements of events at bottom a distant time and an unfamiliar and mysterious setting. Romantic author Mary Shelleys novel Frankenstein conforms to these conventional classic Gothic traits as well as to the juvenile conceptions of what is considered as Gothic. Shelleys Frankenstein is host to a range of signifi tint gothic elements, evident by achievers creation of the gigantic creature, the dark setting of the novel, set in places of graveness and horror, and the disem powerfulnessed portrayal of females, in which women be threatened by the tyranny of males and argon often in distress. Omens and visions are also evident in the novel, push enhancing the Gothicism found in the novel. Frankenstein is defined as a Gothic novel through the many Gothic aspects it features. The connections, and relevance it has to todays modern society and the lessons that can be learned from it, is w hat classifies it as be classic.Shelley uses the wizard(prenominal) elements of raising the dead to frighten her endorsers. Through the eyes of achiever the behemoth is repulsive and altogether unnatural, shocking the reader out of reality, I all at once beheld the figure of a man, at some distance, advancing toward me with superhuman speed. At a time of great scientific advancement this would have been a topical twaddle that pushed the boundaries, presenting readers with a truly shocking idea removed(p) from reality, but remotely possible. Not only is this topic unknown and mysterious, it is presented in such a frightening way that terror consumes the reader. superscripts decision to stop making a female monster is goaded by fear that a race of devils would be propagated upon the earth who top executive make the very existence of the species of man a condition wonky and full of terror and this is the very feeling that has already been sparked in the reader during the cre ation of the outgrowth monster.It could be argued that the gothic novel is primarily concerned with producing a physiological re personationion, a narrative that chills the spine and curdles the blood. Victor himself experiences this bodily reaction induced by fear Sometimes my impulse beat so quickly and hardly that I felt the vibration of every artery. In this respect, Shelleys novel clearly meets the criteria of the gothic traditions. These traditions are enhanced by the feeling of suspense that runs through Frankenstein, particularly from the upshot the monster threatens Victor with the words, I will be with you on your wedding- dark, a phrase that remains with the reader through the novel from the moment it is spoken.Furthermore, character in the gothic novel is presented as sublime. This is evident in Victors journey to the mountains to revive his spirits and the monsters satisfaction when spring arrives. Nature is often used combined with darkness to form a feeling of foreboding or evil. This is the case as Victor creates the monster, an attempt that forces him to avoid daylight and lead a solitary life, the daydream gazed on my midnight labours, while, with unrelaxed and breathless eagerness, I pursued nature to her hiding-places. As the novel progresses we would not expect life to be injected into the monster on any other night but a dreary night in November.Evidently, through multiple narratives, Shelley forces us to question our sympathy. We are told the story of Frankenstein through Walton, who in turn tells the story of the monster. However, it is not until halfway through the novel that we are subject to the monsters narrative and by this time we have already been influenced by Victors colored account of events. Consequently, we become aware of the complex nature of truth and the power of our own subjectivity. The supernatural becomes closer to natural than we may have first imagined. Although we are terrorised in true gothic manner, we are simultaneously labored to question the source of this terror. However a realist understanding of supernatural events can be identified in the reaction of the magistrate as Victor explains his story to, He had heard my story with that half kind of belief that is stipulation to a tale of spirits and supernatural events.Fundamentally, in the case of Justine and Elizabeth, some(prenominal) women conform to the Gothic aspects of women being in distress. As the result of Justine being wrongly accused of the murder of William, her existence is threatened as she faces last if found guilty. Justine is eventually executed ultimately because of Victors selfishness. He created the creature, left it to do what it did and couldnt come in Justines self-denial when she was on trial. The trial not only caused distress to Justine, but to Elizabeth also. twain women experienced emotional distress, with Elizabeth also pleading in tears to the judges. The act of creating the creature and Vict ors inability to realise the vulnerability of others nearly him from the creatures attack also resulted in the violent conclusion of Elizabeth on her wedding night.Nonetheless the act of creating the creature and the ideas behind it is in itself Gothic. In the pursuit of creating life, Victor was animated by an almost supernatural enthusiasm to observe the corruption of the human body and examining the nature of death. He worked with objects that are viewed as revolting and spent days and nights in churchyards, grisly houses and vaults, collecting remains of dead bodies, in places of dark and ghostly atmosphere, emphasising the fear and terror held within society of the time, ultimately labelling Shelleys text as a Gothic novel.

Fiscal Decentralization and Economic Growth in Pakistan

FISCAL DECENTRALIZATION AND ECONOMIC harvest-tide IN PAKITAN A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Institute of Management Sciences, Peshawar In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of MBA (Finance) (2009-2011) Institute of Management Sciences, Peshawar Chapter 1 incoming harmonize to James Edwin Kee, monetary de make come forthstitutionization is the devolvement of certain administrative and pecuniary powers and functions to the sub-national g all overnments.It in addition means the shifting of responsibleness to the low- direct governances with sequent accountability. The ex got of pecuniary devolvement foot be metric in confiness of the powers of subordinate brasss to elevator taxation tax income or to incur wasting diseases. pecuniary devolution in the public sector has accepted great watchfulness during the go bad devil decades for m either discernments. The implications of pecuniary indecorum on the carrying into action of sub leve l government and stinting ontogeny has been examine astray both(prenominal) for the developing and the create world.In transition countries, with the disintegration of concent order schema, monetary federalism turn outd and in many developing countries, handle India, Brazil and Argentina, monetary de keyization was debated conceiveing its con substancemations on stinting stabilization. Some studies brace, however, suggested that the descent betwixt the two has non been conclusive. Financial devolution is reckoned as a key insurance insurance policy in additionl that ensures scotch efficiency and good governance by dint of financial impropriety of the federating units.It leads to the integration of provinces and enhances their participatory role in the stinting development of a landed estate. It relieves the important government from paying attention to the details of financial matters, on that pointby enabling it to on a depress floortake the working classs at national level in a to a great extent effective and efficient manner. Also, if the central government for some reasons becomes inefficient, then devolution can be a possible solution. It accele governs step-up and empowers the low-level governments with financial autonomy and administrative empowerment.The devolution makes the federating units to a greater extent responsible as it brings the government closer to the people. decentalisation policy has a positive effect on economic ontogeny as it helps implement social policies in a develop manner. In decentralized lay out ups, the lower tiers of governments accredit ofttimes ab kayoed the necessities and developmental needs of the people, which leads to economic efficiency in service delivery, on that pointby accelerating the emergence rate at national and regional levels. This is withal called the Oats decentralisation Theorem.It says that if the people in one municipality atomic number 18 non provided wit h adequate public service, they whitethorn opt for shifting to former(a) municipalities having more(prenominal) facilities. Financial autonomy reduces the wasteful utilization of imagings by the central government. harmonise to Bird and Smart (2002), for effective service delivery it is important that the telephone receiver of cash in hand has clear mandate, sufficient picks and powers to make decisions. Through decentalisation, responsibilities as well as re cums argon devolved to the lower level governments (Rondinelli,1981).In this way , the federating units atomic number 18 sceptered which enable them to use the resources to good effect , raise living bar of the people and distrisolelye the work load (Gordin, 2004). In Pakistans case, the substance of Fiscal devolution cannot be overemphasized. Pakistan is a federation having a centralized taxation dust. The major chunk of revenue is takeed by the central government, which is then distributed among the provinces t o take out financial disparities.Article 160 of the constitution empowers the president that he shall constitute content Finance Commission after every quintette age for the distribution of bills, taxes and some other(a) monetary assets among the federating units. The decision of the commission is called National Finance Commission award. The commission is comprised of the pay ministers of the federation and the provinces and such other persons as may be appointed by the president in consultation with the governors of the respective provinces. So far, seven NFC Awards w ar been announced, the la render universe the seventh NFC Award of 2010.Except for the 1974 Award, in that location has been a exploitation tendency in the direct of revenue from the focus on to the provinces. The 4th NFC Award was a large move forward towards pecuniary decentralisation as it enhanced the address of the provinces by 18% and authorized their right over hydel profit, developmental plunk and excise duty on crude oil. The 7th NFC Award accepted the demands of Baluchistan, KPK, Sindh by excogitate a formula, wherein poverty, inverse macrocosm density and under development train as well been given ascribable weightage.Moreover, the idyll address has been enhanced from the previous 47. 5% to 56%. The provinces were to a fault given the powers to meet Sales task on their own. Following this decision, the Sindh Province has already under taken this task and claims to have roll up 50% more Sales Tax in the first five months of the financial year comp bed to the match distributor point of time stopping point year Dawn, Dec 10, 2011. The 8th Financial Award is scheduled to be held on 16th Dec, 2011.Apart from the resource distribution Through NFC Award, Article 161 of the organization provides for bump off of Royalty on natural resources to the respective provinces in the make up ones mind of surcharge on gas and crude oil. This get out lead to greate r transfer of funds from the nitty-gritty to the provinces. With the 18th Constitutional amendment, the con accepted attend has been abolished, and with it entry No. 49 in the 4th Schedule to the national Legislative list has as well been amended. As a result, the GST Services in federal official Excise mode have been assigned to the provinces.Despite the presence of this organic utensil for resource distribution, the smooth apportionment of funds was interrupted due to deadlocks among the provinces over the distribution formula, and, resultantly, the NFC Award failed to nar course down the vertical and plain resource gaps. At the district level, The National Re construction Bureau launched a decentalisation programmed by government activity Plan 2000, wherein it was acknowledged that without Fiscal decentralisation no government agency is devolved, which get on emphasizes the wideness of transfer of funds to the lower tiers of government.The in a higher place paragrap hs portray notwithstanding one side of the picture. There are many studies which suggest that thither is no direct affinity amid fiscal devolution and economic offshoot and efficiency at the level of sub-national governments. As a matter of fact, there is also a laborious case against the Fiscal federalism. It may lead to social inequalities as for instance, incomes and taxes may not be equitably distributed among the various regions of a state. Also, unyielding cost are associated with running administrations of low-level governments.So, in low-income countries it may not be middlingified to spend substantial summation of the getable funds on these expenses (Homme,1995). The human human parturition of Fiscal devolution and economic addition has been studied extensively in recent years. So, large people of literature is on tap(predicate) on the topic. Different affinitys were studied to establish any clear alliance amongst Fiscal devolution and economic evolutio n, but inconsistent results were obtained both for the developed and the developing economies.Some studies have commemoraten positive alliance, others prejudicial and still others no relationship at all among economic growth and fiscal autonomy. For Pakistan, too, studies have only to find any clear relationship between financial decentralization and economic growth. Important contributions on this subject have been do by Zang and Zou(1998) ,Xie , Zou and Davoodi (1999) , Lin and Liu (2000) , Thieben (2001) , Martinez-Vazquez , Mc gain vigor(2001) , Felenstine & Iwata (2005) and Kardar (2006) etc.This field of operation identifies strengths and weaknesses of the quick Resource Distribution System (RDS) through historical review. It is generally believed that that proper information about the existing RDS pass on lead to better policy formulation, which will ultimately put the country on the road to prosperity. In this connection, it is also worth term to analyze the implica tions of the current resource distribution policies on the economic growth of the country. Thus, this study helps shape the extent of financial autonomy of the provinces and measures its long term benefits.Rest of the study is arranged as follows Chapter 2 pertains to Literature review i. e. study conducted previously by other researchers on this topic In chapter 3 theoretical downplay and econometric methodology for our estimation is existence discussed chapter 4 discusses sources of our information and construction of variable star stars chapter 5 covers results and interpretation thereof results and chapter 6 is about the conclusion of research. Chapter 2 Literature Review 2. 1 IntroductionIn this chapter, we discuss the empirical studies related to our study i. e. work through with(p) previously by other researchers on this topic. 2. 2 Previous empirical studies The significance of relationship between the financial autonomy and economic growth can be gauged from the volum e of literature available on this topic. sundry(a) important relationships were studied to establish clear relationship between the two, but inconsistent results were obtained both for the developed and the developing economies.For Pakistan too studies have yet to find any clear relationship between financial decentralization and economic growth. On leafing through the pages of available literature, one comes across valuable work on the topic, some of which is discussed in the following paras Davoodi and Zou (1998) developed a theoretical sit around for studying the relationship between Fiscal autonomy and economic growth on the buttocks of averaged adorn data of 46 countries. The study showed a negative relationship between the two for developing countries.Zhang and Zou (1998), period using Chinas idyl panel data for the period 1978-1992, found a negative association between barbarian economic growth and the degree of financial autonomy over the past fifteen years. Philips a nd Woller (1997) studied the above referred relationship for seventeen developed and twenty terce less developed countries on the data collected for the period 1974 to 1991. A negative weakly substantial relationship was found for the developed world. However, no such relationship could be proved between the two variables for the less developed countries.Xie , Zou and Davoodi (1999) detect that there is a highly insignificant relationship between Fiscal Decentralization and economic growth for the United States, which the authors attributed to the fact that the country had already r apieceed optimal level of fiscal autonomy and thus no further relegate on this line was possible. Thieban (2001) do use of OECD countries cross sectional data for the period 1975 to 1995, but the study failed to establish any link between revenue decentralization of the low-level governments and economic growth of these countries.Martinez Vazquez and Mc Nab (2001) argued that the relationship betwe en fiscal decentralization and economic growth is still unclear, and that little attention has been paid to indirect factors through which fiscal devolution may influence economic growth. In contrast to the above conclusions, Lin and Liu (2000), while using panel data of 28 provinces for the period 1970 to 1993, arrived at the conclusion that there exists a positive relationship between fiscal decentralization and economic growth in China. The authors say that the impressive growth of china for the last twenty years can be link to fiscal reforms.Ebel and Yilmaz (2001), observed that Fiscal design of OECD countries is unable to explain Fiscal decentralization in true sense. Martinez Vazquez and Mc Nab (2003), on the foothold of panel data, covering the period 1972-1997, studied the direct and indirect relationship between fiscal decentralization, economic growth and macroeconomic stability . They arrived at the conclusion that devolution minimizes the inflation rate, has no dire ct influence on economic growth, and has positive indirect effect on growth as it results in on macroeconomic stability.Justin Yifu and Zhiqiang (2000), investigated the implications of fiscal decentralization of economic growth in China, and found that it has made remarkable contribution to economic growth. This finding is in conformity with the hypothesis that Fiscal devolution enhances economic efficiency. Fielstentein and Iwata (2005), while using VAR (Vector Auto regressive) bewilder found that there is a relationship between decentralization and macro economic surgical process in China. They concluded that Fiscal decentralization is positively related to growth in the period after the war, and has negative effects on the inflation rate after the 1970s.While using the cross country data for 78 countries, Mello and Barenstein (2001) observed that as the parcel of land of receipts, including non-tax revenue, grants and transfer of funds, from the federal government increases i n the conglomeration provincial revenues, the relationship between financial devolution and governance grows stronger. Shah (1991) pointed out that poor performance in most of the developing countries in the last 40 years can be attributed to highly centralized regimes.Huther and Shah (1998) noted that good governance and fiscal decentralization are positively related, which in turn may enhance economic growth. Akai and Sakata (2002) utilize single country data and predicted that fiscal decentralization plays a role in economic development. They pointed out that in the United States, high government spending was unavoidable in the initial phases of economic development, therefore, any analysis that took into consideration this period is bound to overestimate the role of central government in the economic development.This led Xie et al (1999) to declare that decentralization has adverse effect on economic development. Jorge Martinez-Vazquez and Mark Rider (2006) pointed out the st ructure of financial system plays a pivotal role in determining the conduct and performance of low-level governments, which indirectly influence economic growth of a country. According to them, though both China and India show great financial decentralization, the central governments restrict the fiscal autonomy of the sub-national governments through conditional grants and inadequate powers to raise revenue.Thus, the regional governments are forced to use extra budgetary allocations to bastinado their financial constraints, which results in waste of resources. These structural infirmities in the financial systems incriminate profligacy and un resultive expenditure policies, which may hamper the growth rate in the future in both the countries. Nobuo Akai, Yukihiro Nishimura and Masayo Sakata (2007), while using panel data of the fifty states of the US, showed that fiscal decentralization minimizes the strain of GDP growth due to decentralization among various levels of government .They also observed that there exists a negative relationship between fiscal devolution and economic volatility. Hiroko Uchimora and Yurika Suzuki (2009) studied Fiscal Decentralization in the Philippines after the promulgation of Local Government code (1991) . This study examined the fiscal relationship between the central and sub national governments by using the indicators of Fiscal decentralization. According to their findings, in the Philippines, the responsibility to incur expenditures by the topical anaesthetic governments is not accompanied by corresponding strengthening of the fiscal capacity.As a result, topical anaesthetic governments rely heavily on fiscal transfers from the central government and Internal Revenues Allotment, which render the local finance unstable. Atushi Alimi(2004) Although , in theory, decentralization promises efficient provision of public service at local level, empirical evidence gives a mixed picture regarding its implications on economic growt h. They attempted to resolve this inconsistency by using subservient technique on the data for the period 1997 to 2001.In this study, fiscal decentralization is measured in basis of the ratio between local expenditure to nub government expenditure. The result showed a significant positive relationship between per capita growth rate and Fiscal decentralization. Perraton, J. and Wells, p. (2003), in their paper, Multi level governance and stinting cohesion noted three general headings in economic policy devising the transfer of powers to supranational institution in economic policy formulation, e. g. he formation of the European Union and World Trade brass section secondly, almost all developed countries have established regional organizations, to which powers of economic policy-making have been devolved. In the transition states, there is a growing tendency towards decentralization to curtail expenditures and to make the governments more accountable thirdly, the governments are now inclined to reduce their sizes and make alternate arrangements for governance through NGOs. This concept of governance is referred to as multi-level governance.In Pakistans case, Fiscal Federalism has been studied in detail. According to Anwar Shah, World Bank (Dec, 2006), there are two slipway of transferring funds from the Centre to the provinces assigning share of the federal revenues to the provinces at a pre-determined rate and direct transfer of funds (other than revenue) from the Centre to the provinces. According to him, the revenue sharing system in Pakistan make believes the transfers in a lump sum and predictable manner to the federating units, which are at liberty to use these funds the way they choose.The author further argues that NFC places greater responsibility of revenue accruement on the Federal government, thereby making the tax machinery efficient and tax compliance cost effective. The Revenue sharing system may have its merits, but it is also associated with certain demerits. For example, the provinces enjoy Brobdingnagian discretion in the utilization of funds, but have no control over the amount of funds they receive from the centre the federal government cannot influence the provinces to set priorities for achieving uniform standards in reas like health and Education the provinces receive the funds without any strings attached to it , therefore, they feel less accountable while spending the funds the share received by the provinces have no relation with the expenditures they incur, as unremarkably the expenditures outgrow the rate at which the Federal revenue grows. Nighat Bilgrami and Mahpara Sadaqat (2006) have given an account of evolution and working of NFC Award ever since its introduction in 1951. According to the authors, with the exception of 1974 Award, there is a growing tendency in increase of revenue transfer to the provinces.The major step forward in this direction was the 1991 NFC Award, wherein new taxes were allowd in the divisible pool. In addition, as envisaged in Article 161 of the Constitution, royalty on crude oil and surcharge on gas were also transferred to the provinces. This caused greater decentralization of funds, which over a period of time played a pivotal role in improving service delivery in health, education and irrigation etc sectors. The paper identifies various forms of fund transfers from the Federal government to the provinces.These include Revenue Sharing Transfers, Straight transfers, Recurring Grants, Development Grants and loans. The authors have also elucidated that how resources are transferred in Pakistan from the federal government to the provinces in four ways from the centre to the provinces, from provincial to local governments, from the federal government to the local governments and from local to local governments. The paper also gives a rationale for transfers of resources from the federal to provincial and municipal governments.At the end of the pap er, the authors have suggested that smaller provinces be provided with soft loans and factors like backwardness and poverty be also considered while allocating the resources. Moreover, the provinces should be allowed to buckle under revenues that fall within their do main. Iftikhar Ahmed, Usman Mustafa and Mahmood Khalid (2007) have dilated upon the evolution of resource distribution over time. According to them the divisible pool has been expanded by the comprehension of more taxes.However, as creation is the sole criteria for the distribution of resources through NFC awards, it has given birth to serious differences among the provinces. The paper says that resources are transferred from the centre to the provinces in two ways Systematic or linguistic rule Based transfer, comprising of revenue sharing and random transfer, including grants, executive discretionary funds and Parliamentarian funds etc. According to the authors, with the enactment of time the federal government ha s become more centralized, thereby adversely affecting the efficiency of the provincial governments.The federal government has got engaged in activities that purely fall within the purview of provinces. These include irrigation, roads, culture, tourism, youth affairs etc. This has increased the burden on federal government. The Federal government collects 93 % of the revenue but expends only 72%, whereas the provinces generate just 7% but spend 28%. The argument behind greater revenue collection by the centre is that it is more efficient in revenue collection than the provinces. tho this argument is flawed as the provincial and local governments are left with lesser opportunities to collect revenue.This results in the addiction of the provinces on the federal government for transfer of resources. In this paper, NFC Award has also been criticized in that the criteria for resource distribution are mainly macrocosm. Elsewhere in the world, other factors like backwardness, people de nsity, and revenue generation are also considered while devising a formula for distribution of resources. According to the authors, the major shift towards fiscal decentralization appeared in the 1996 NFC Award, whereby all duties and taxes were included in the divisible pool.By so doing transparency and predictability in resource distribution was though enhanced, yet the resource distribution formula between the federal and provincial governments changed little. The paper says that resources distribution has never been taken seriously. Only one criterion, that is population, has been followed for resource distribution, thats why the NFC Award has failed to resolve the hassle of Fiscal Decentralization. Usman Mustafa (2011) has highlighted the importance of federal form of government and has argued that even European Union has the characteristics of federalism.While referring to whole shebang of notable authors on the subject, it has been argued that Fiscal Decentralization increa ses efficiency, transparency and accountability. According to the author, in Pakistans case, there are pre-federalism (from 1947-71) and post federalism (from 1973 onwards) periods. In the first perid, the leave was centralized (one unit), whereas the second period is characterized by the march towards decentralization of powers from the centre to the provinces. In this scene, the author argues that NFC Award is a step forward towards decentralization.He, however, criticizes population cosmos suitable criteria for resource distribution between the centre and the provinces. In order to remove the grievances of the smaller provinces, a historical decision was taken in the 7th NFC Award on Dec, 2009 at Gawadar, to which all the provinces agreed. In this award, the demands of the smaller provinces were accepted, and a multifactor formula was devised. In the formula, factors like poverty, underdevelopment and inverse population density were also included for resource distribution. Mor eover, the Federation sacrificed more that 10% of its share in favour of the provinces.It was also agreed that collection charges received by the Federal government on revenue would be curtailed from the existing 5% to 1%. This will increase the volume of net transfer of revenue from the federal to the provincial governments. All these decisions taken in the 7th NFC Award will contribute favourably towards Fiscal Decentralization in Pakistan. According to Kardar (2006), local governments have significance both in the context of Devolution plan and failure of central and provincial governments to deliver shade services to the masses ever since the emergence of Pakistan.He further argued that though command on devolution is a landmark achievement, the biggest challenge is to settle the row over powers between the provinces and district governments. Dr. Shahnawaz Malik, Mahmood-ul-Hassan and Shahzad Hussein analyzed the relationship between Fiscal decentralization and economic growth for the period 1971-2005. They obtained mixed results on the basis of different variables used in analysis. The study further showed that with the round-the-clock rise in the share of provincial government revenues and expenditures, economic growth slows down.Naeem-ur-Rehman Khattak, Iftikhar Ahmed and Jangraiz Khan, while using time series data, for the period 1980 to 2007, analyzed the resource distribution, and studied the furbish up of financial decentralization on the economic growth of Pakistan. According to them, the divisible pool has expanded over the years by the inclusion of more taxes in it. They pointed out that the resource distribution mechanism failed to affect economic growth positively, and suggested that the distribution formula be revisited, having regard to factors like tax collection and backwardness of the provinces.They further suggested that more powers be delegated to the provinces to raise their own revenues. Chapter 3 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND AND ECONME TRIC METHODOLOGY 3. 1 Introduction In this chapter we discuss the theory which guides our research, variables of our personate, type of statistical relationship and the regulate we will use for estimation. 3. 2 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND Various forms of Decentralization. It refers to the delegation of powers and functions from the central to low-level governments. There are three main forms of decentralization (JICA 2008) . 2. 1. Decentralization It is the weakest type of decentralization, and refers to the transfer of decision making powers along with financial and management responsibilities from the officials in the centre to those serving in the local /regional offices. 3. 2. 2. Delegation Here the powers are delegated to the autonomous bodies, including corporations, housing government etc. , working under the supervision of the central government. These organizations enjoy vast discretion and decision making powers. 3. 2. 3.Devolution It is the gradual transfer of administrati ve, financial and governmental authority to the local bodies, which exercise their powers and functions within certain geographical confines. It has three main constituents, as discussed below a) Political decentralization It refers to the shifting of powers and authority to local bodies, run by local governmental representatives. It has a well-established system of political decision-making and accountability at the local level. b) Administrative decentralizationIt is the form of devolution whereby staff of line ministry is dissociated from their corresponding ministries and brought under the control of the local administration. This is done through establishing local pay roll, which empowers them to reward and punish the staff. c) Fiscal decentralization It refers to the shifting of authority and responsibility to the sub-level governments with regard to decision-making on distribution of financial resources. This also includes the powers to raise local revenue.Fiscal decentrali zation has attracted great attention, among the economic circles, particularly for improving service delivery at the local level. The main objectives of Fiscal decentralization include efficient utilization of resources, effective service delivery, macroeconomic stability and economic growth. With these objectives in view, the developing world is following the pattern of Subsidiarity, which emphasizes that authority should rest with the lower tiers of government for effective use, and that the responsibility of incur expenditures should match with adequate financing.Decentralization leads to efficient utilization of funds through service in governance, as lower strata of government can better tax peoples problems and know their priorities. Decentralization enhances participation of local population as the beneficiaries are directly involved in planning the allocation of funds. Increased decentralization gives birth to democratization, which keeps the government close to the mass es, thereby making it more accountable. 3. 3 Various theories regarding decentralizationThe above narrated advantages, and many more not discussed here, emphasize the importance of Fiscal decentralization. But it was since the publishing of Tiebouts article, A pure theory of local Expenditure that this concept has gained great popularity among the theorists, and the volume of literature on this topic has increased tremendously. According to Tibeout (1956), Fiscal decentralization improves production efficiency through greater mass mobilization. In 1959 Musgrave pointed out that the role of government is to bring stability to the market and effect the redistribution of income.He further argued that efficient utilization of resources can be secured only when local tastes and choices are taken into consideration. Oates (1972) pointed out that people living in different localities have peculiar tastes and preferences for public service, therefore, local governments, as against central g overnment, being better informed, will provide better services to its citizens. This concept is called Oates Decentralization Theorem, consort to which economic efficiency can be enhanced by decentralize the availability of public goods and services.Thus, the central government should be responsible for devising a national policy and providing efficient levels of government for distribution of goods . (Oates,2005) So, weaponed with the requisite paraphernalia , the sub-national governments are in a better amaze to put in place welfare-maximizing policies. Cremer, Estach and Seebright (1994), stated that government at the centre cannot reach the information about local tastes and choices. Thus, it is through Fiscal Decentralization that local agents can bring about efficient tag on of goods and services to their constituencies.Almost identical views were expressed by Qian and Weingast (1997), who opined that decentralization puts a check on budget expansion by promoting competiti on and strengthening accountability, which effects supply of goods and services in an efficient manner. Having said this, there is evermore a tendency among the local political agents to enlarge the scope of public goods and services at the cost of other jurisdictions. Rodden (2003) attributed this predilection to the type of decentralization being followed.If decentralization is helpless on self-generated tax revenue, smaller governments emerge and if transfer of funds occurs from the centre, it results in budget expansion. Though from economic and political point of view there are many benefits of Fiscal decentralization, yet it is not a cure for all ills. For instance, Fiscal Decentralization entails passage of Economies of Scale and loosens control over scarce resources. From it follows that centralization and Decentralization are not alternatives, rather the countries should find a balance between the two as per their requirements. . 4. Rationale for Fiscal Transfer in Pakis tan The first reason is the general perception that the federal government is better equipped to collect major taxes, but is inefficient to collect smaller taxes. Also, the federal government may undertake major projects, but fail to deliver on smaller projects. Hence, the efficiency criteria must be followed while deciding allocation of means and responsibilities. The second reason for resource transfer from the centre to the provinces is that the last mentioned lack the resources to finance the provision of even basic services.In the last ten years, the average revenue generated by the centre, provinces and municipalities stand at 89%, 5% and 6% separately. As against the revenue generation, the share in recurring expenditure of the federal, provincial and municipal governments is 74%, 23% and 4% respectively. As regards developmental expenditure, the share of these governments is as follows Federal government 65%, provincial government 25% and municipal governments 6%. These f igures indicate that the provinces have limited resources twin the amount of expenditure they incur.This necessitates the transfer of resources from federal to lower-tiers of government. Another reason that can be attributed to the allocation of resources among the different levels of government is Adequacy of Revenue. This concept refers to the susceptibility of government not only to generate the initial revenue need to start a project but also to its ability to accept it. In Pakistans case, Adequacy of revenue does not exist because transfer of resources to the lower tiers of government is necessary if they are to undertake any such projects.The fourth reason of transfer funds from the centre to the provinces is that there are taxes which though provincial in nature but is collected by the federal government, for example Sales Tax. Another rationale for transfer of funds is that federal government uses certain taxes for the overall stabilization of the miserliness hence the y should be under the control of the federal government. NFC AWARDS Commentary and Agenda, Nighat Bilagarami, Jaffery and Mahpara Sadaqat (2006). 3. 5 ECONMETRIC METHODOLOGY 3. 5. 1Augmented dickey cram full (ADF) Test In this study a time series data is being used.Since this kind of data is usually non-stationary in nature, we first test it for stationarity or non-stationarity. For this intent, an enhanced version of Dicky fuller Test, known as Augmented Dicky sperm-filled Test, is being employed. The ADF includes extra lagged terms of the subject variable so as to remove auto-correlation. The following equations denote the three possible forms of ADF Test. i) Without any constant and trend ?yt=? *yt-1+i=1p? i? yt-i+et ii) everlasting with non trend ?yt=a+? *yt-1i=1p? i+? yt-1+et iii) Constant with trend ?yt=a+? t+? *yt-1+i=1p? i+? yt-1+etOf the above equations, (iii) represents a more generalized form of ADF Test. Mackinnon(1991) gave searing grades for the DF test The cri tical values for the ADF Test are the same as those for Dickey Fuller Test. If the DF Statistical value is smaller than the critical value, Null hypothesis of a unit root is discarded, which suggests that the yt is stationary process or the variables are stationary. If on running the ADF Test the variables are found non-stationary in their original levels of series, the variables are made stationary in their first difference level of the series. . 5. 2 Ordinary least square model (OLS) Once the variables are made stationary, estimation is made by employing Ordinary least square model (OLS). This model is suitable for ascertaining linear interdependencies in a time series data. Here it is also worthwhile to discuss Regression model. A aggregate linear regression model estimates value of dependant variable (also called reply variable) on the basis of independent variables (also called explanatory variables). But there is always a difference in estimated and observed values.Therefor e, a Regression model also possess unexplained variable, also called error term, which measures the difference between observed and estimated values. y= b+b1 x1+ b2 x2+ b x3 +ei A regression model will be best fit if the difference between observed and estimated value is minimum. We cannot take error term by simply adding all the difference between observed and estimated value because it may contain both positive and negative values which can cancel the effect of each other. So, we take the square of error terms which leads us to OLS . i. e. minimum square up difference.OLS is useful for structural inference and policy analysis. For the purpose of Structural compendium of data, certain assumptions regarding the causality of data are made. These are error term (i) is normally distributed (ii) has zero expected value of mean (iii) has constant variance in each time period and for all values of X and (iv) its value in one time period is unrelated to its value in other time period. OLS is a very simple technique by which we can calculate the coefficient of each variable in other words it gives us the impact of one variable on another variable, which is summarized by impulse response function. Chapter 4 DATA AND VARIABLE 4. 1 inception This chapter covers how data is collected, what are sources of our data and how variables have been constructed variables for our estimation. 4. 2 entropy type For the purpose of studying the relationship between Fiscal decentralization and economic growth, secondary data is being utilized. 4. 3 Sources of data For the purpose of this study the following sources have been utilized. i) Issues of frugal survey of Pakistan ii)World Development Indicators iii)Ten years in Pakistan Statistics (1983) iv)UNDP Human Development Report, 2007. )Hand book of Statistics on Pakistan Economy (2005) 4. 4 Construction of variables scotch growth of the country is taken as dependant variable. It is measured in terms of per capita Log of per capita gross domestic product (LYP), which is rebased by the year 2000 market prices. The variable is expressed in current terms using GDP deflator to ascertain the pattern of economic growth over the years. The Fiscal decentralization is captured on the ratio of Provincial share in Total Revenue to the Total Revenue (PRFR). The data source for these variables is Economic survey of Pakistan and covers the period from 1964 to 2008.As regards investment, it is captured by the Gross Fixed with child(p) Formation (GFCF) and data is taken from Pakistan Economic Survey Moreover, a variable for trade openness (OPN) is also used in the estimation model. This variable is obtained by adding imports and exports and dividing the same by LYP (at market prices). Here, too, the source of data is Economic Survey of Pakistan Other variables in the estimation model are Tax to GDP ratio (TGDP) and GINI co-efficient, the latter being used to calculate income equation and its source is UNDP Human Development Report. Chapter 5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION . 1 INTRODUCTION The section consists of results and their interpretation. In para 5. 1, 5. 2 and 5. 3 Stationarity of data, Autocorrelation and the results of OLS model respectively have been discussed. 5. 2 Unit Root test In a time series data, the major problem is the non-stationarity of variables. So, before estimation, a test is applied to make the variables stationary. For this purpose various tests can be employed, but in our case we have used Augmented Dickey Fuller test, the results of which are shown in table 5. 1 below. slacken 5. 1 building block ROOT TEST Non stationary variables ADF-value 5% Critical value Gfcf -1. 693492 -2. 9303 Gini -2. 462911 -2. 9303 Lpy 0. 863730 -2. 9303 PRFR -2. 206432 -2. 9303 TGDP 0. 158213 -2. 9303 stationary variables ADF-value Critical value Gfcf -3. 997577 -2. 9320 Gini -4. 766215 -2. 9320 Lpy -4. 632922 -2. 9320 OPN -3. 453532 -2. 9303 PRFR -3. 662186 -2. 9320 TGDP -3. 01612 -2. 932 0 Gfcf- Gross fixed capital formation, Gini- Income inequality, Lpy- Log of GDP, OPN- nakedness to trade (export+import/GDP), PRFR- Ratio of provincial shares in total revenue to total revenue, TGDP- Tax to GDP ratio.At the level, all the variables except OPN were found non-stationary, and were, therefore, stationarized at First difference level by using ADF Test. 5 . 3 TEST FOR AUTOCORRELATION Autocorrelation tells about the relationship between two or more error terms in the model. For unbiased estimation, autocorrelation must be zero. If there exists problem of autocorrelation, it has to be removed. For this purpose, two hypothesis are constructed one, H0 Co-Var(u,u+1)=0,there is no autocorrelation between the error terms and second, Ha Co-Var(u,u+1)not equal to zero, meaning there is a problem of autocorrelation.To check autocorrelation in our model, we have used Breusch-Godfrey Serial correlation coefficient LM Test (BG TEST), as shown in table 5. 2. According to the table, c hance of F-statistic is significant at 5%, so we reject the hypothesis that cov (ut, ut+1) is equal to zero. In other words, there is autocorrelation problem in our model. In order to remove the autocorrelation problem, we have applied ARMA model with autocorrelation through AR (1), AR (3) and MA (2). Breusch-Godfrey Serial Correlation LM Test F-statistic 4. 781666 prospect 0. 001241 Obs*R-squared 20. 50376 Probability 0. 002252Probability of F-statistic is significant at 5%, so we reject the hypothesis that cov (ut, ut+1) is equal to zero. It means there is autocorrelation problem in our model. 5 . 4 ESTIMATION The results of the estimation with OLS are tabulated in Table 5. 3 below Dependent variableLPYMethod Least Squares Date 03/25/12 Time 1113 Variable Coefficient t-Statistic Prob. GFCF 0. 004693 3. 806074 0. 0006 GINI -0. 324275 -2. 919698 0. 0065 OPN 0. 000254 0. 468847 0. 6425 PRFR -0. 000173 -0. 517278 0. 6086 TGDP -0. 003194 -0. 809929 0. 4242 R-squared 0 . 97793 Prob(F-statistic) 0. 000000 Adjusted R-squared 0. 997081 Durbin-Watson stat 1. 705104 In the model R2 shows strength of the regression line, which means how much important variables are covered by a model or how well vicissitude in independent variables explains the variation in dependent variable. For time series analysis R2 value must be greater than 0. 70 or 70%, which means the model must explain at least 70% of the total variation in dependent variable. In our results, R2=99% value is greater than 70%, so 99% of variation LPY is explained by our variables i. . GFCF, GINI, OPN, PRFR, TGDP. But the values in the 3rd column against each variable show t values. If the t value, in absolute form, is greater than 2, the relationship between the variables is significant. In our case, the financial autonomy is measured in terms of Ratio of Provincial share in Total Revenue (PRFR), whereas the Economic growth is captured on the variable LPY. It is evident from the table that the relationship between LPY (dependent) and PRFR (independent) is insignificant because the devalues, in absolute form, are less than 2.It implies that LPY is not influenced by PRFR. In other words, in Pakistans case, Fiscal decentralization has no bearing on economic growth. The model shows that GFCF and GINI with variables have t value greater than 2 in absolute form affect economic growth. Durbin-watson value in the table tells us about the problem of auto-correlation in the model. If the value of Durbin-watson test is between 1. 7 and 2. 2 there will be no auto-correlation. In our table its value 1. 7, so we say that the problem of auto-correlation has been removed.CHAPTER NO 06 CONCLUSION This study focuses on identifying the impact of fiscal decentralization on economic growth through compiling of its historical trends. It is generally believed that that proper information about the existing fiscal decentralization system will lead to better policy formulation, which wi ll ultimately put the country on the road to prosperity. In this regard, it is also worthwhile to analyze the implications of the current fiscal decentralization policy on the economic growth of the country.Thus, this study helps ascertain the extent of financial autonomy of the provinces and measures its long term benefits. In this study secondary data has been used, which covers the period from 1964 to 2008. Provincial share in total revenue (PRFR), GFCF- Gross fixed capital formation, Gini- Income inequality, OPN- Openness to trade (export+import/GDP), PRFR- Ratio of provincial shares in total revenue to total revenue, TGDP- Tax to GDP ratio are dependant variables, whereas LPY (Log of GDP) is dependent variable in the data.We used OLS model for our estimation, the results of which revealed that only GFCF and GINI have significant impact on GDP growth. On the other hand the influence of, OPN, TGDP and PRFR on economic growth (LPY) are insignificant. As PRFR and LPY measure the ex tent of fiscal decentralization and Economic growth respectively, we conclude that economic growth in Pakistan does not depend on fiscal decentralization. This may be due to the fact the Resource Distribution Formula has been mainly based on population. The results of other factors, included of late in the NFC Award, are yet to be seen.It is, therefore, proposed that not only the impact of population in the distribution formula be diluted by the inclusion of other factors, being emphasized by the smaller provinces, but also the powers of the provinces with regard to revenue generation be enhanced. 1 . The words, Financial devolution, financial autonomy and Financial /fiscal decentralization are being used interchangeably in this study. 2 . In this discussion ,the words, federating unit, unit, province, sub-national government and low-level government will be used interchangeably.

Islam Worksheet Essay

When studying Islam, it is important to understand the essential elements of the faith, how they atomic number 18 coifd, and the distinctions among the trio branches Shiite Islam, Sunni Islam, and Sufism.Write a 1- to 2-paragraph response for individually of the following aimives and none where thither atomic number 18 differences among the three branches of Islam.1. Explain the meaning of the name, Islam.The typographical error translation of the news program Islam is surrender or submission. The name Islam implies a complete surrender to Allah, and those who practice Islam atomic number 18 referred to as Islamics. The word Islam is derived from the Arabic word salam, which inwardness intermission or safety. Muslims believe that the reason for forgiving existence is to surrender to the peerless True graven image, Allah (Molloy, 2010).2. Explain the basic concepts of Islam.Islam reades it followers (Muslims) that the Holy ledger is the literal word of deity is an a ll-encompassing book and includes everything nearly Islam. One of the nearly fundamental concepts of Islam is the belief that only angiotensin-converting enzyme God exists. Islam teaches many aspects about God that be similar to the teachings of Judaism and Christianity. Islam teaches that God has always existed, can non be destroyed, knows everything, created the universe. an other(prenominal) basic concept of Islam is that God never had a son (Jesus) however, Islam does teach that Jesus was a prophet as was Muhammad, just Muhammad is believed to be the eventually of a number of profits, and he was sent to Earth by God to confirm the word of God to the gentleman. The most fundamental beliefs or concepts of Islam are There is only one True God No other being or thing is worth of worship, only the True God Muhammad is Gods messenger and the last prophet Every compassionate who has ever existed will face God on Judgment twenty-four hour period to account for his or her deeds and at this time, God will return or deny admittance into Heaven.3. expound the practices of Islam.The primary(prenominal) practices of Islam are gruelling in what are known as the Five Pillars of Islam. The Five Pillars of Islam, as outlined in the playscript are archetype to be mandatary practices that each Muslim must practice.The Five Pillars of Islam are1) Shahada (Profession of Faith) Muslims must verbally acknowledge the existence of only one God and Muhammad is Gods messenger. The creed, There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is his messenger, is spoken daily in prayer, and inscribed on and in Mosques (Molloy, 2010).2) Prayer Muslims are call for to pray five times every day of the week the prayers are infallible every day ahead dawn, at midday, at midafternoon, at sunset, and at nighttime. Muslims typically undergo a ritualistic cleansing of the hands, arms, face, and neck before prayer, and face toward Mecca when praying (Molloy, 2010).3) Zakat (Charity to th e Poor) Muslims are required to give a percentage of the thorough of everything they own to the poor each year. In addition to giving to the poor, Muslims are expected to be generous and charitable toward the poor when they encounter an hazard in their daily lives (Molloy, 2010).4) Sawm (Fasting during Ramadan) Ramadan is the ninth month of the year according to the Muslim calendar and the month during which it is believed that Muhammad began receiving revelations from God. As with various other religions, fasting is thought to bring spiritual growth for Muslims the month-long fast help to form a bond and unite Muslims. During Ramadan, Muslims abstain from food, liquids, tobacco, and sexual activity from dawn until dusk. Ramadan ends with a feast to celebrate the Revelations given to Muhammad (Molloy, 2010).5) Hajj (Pilgrimage to Mecca) Every Muslim is required to visit Mecca (Hajj) at least once in their mannertime. A pilgrimage, as with other religions, is believed to bring about new understanding and personal transformations found on the spiritual goals of the religion. Only Muslims are permitted to enter the city of Mecca (Molloy, 2010).4. Describe the goals of Islam.The goals of Islam are similar to the goals of other religions in that the religion is believed to be a moral and good government agency in a field that is in a constant struggle between good and evil. Framing the world as in constants peril and painting itself as the moral and ethical effectiveness, Islam (like other religions) seeks to regulate human life through rules, rituals, and other dogma (Molloy, 2010).Staying in the realm of regulating human life, Islam attempts to provide guidelines to enable Muslims to life a life as close to perfection (God) as possible. Islam likewise has developed controls and bans on particular proposition activities, things, actions, etc. as a means of creating and maintaining social order and increase the happiness of Muslims (Molloy, 2010).5. De scribe the trance of authority in Islam.The Islamic view of authority began with Muhammad Muhammad combined political (civic) authority with spiritual authority, which is essentially a theocracy. However, modern Islam has split into two main branches that differ on their view of authority. Sunnis, which accounts for the largest percentage of the worlds Muslim population, recognize a real difference between religious and civil authority. The Shiite Muslims however, maintain the belief that both religious and civil authority should be centralized. Shiite Muslims place give all spiritual and religious authority to one person (Flesher, n.d.).The Quran serves as the primary source of information and authority for Muslims, untold as the Bible does for Christians. With this in mind, evaluate Islams historical influences on law, philosophy, and the arts in the Muslim world. Write a 1- to 2-paragraph response for each of the following questions. Provide examples to illustrate your thinkin g.1. What is the legal deification in Islamic law? How does the Quran inform and guide Muslims in attaining this ideal?The legal ideal of Islamic law, which is known as Sharia, are laws that continually bring day-to-day life into closer coherence with the rules set forth in the Quran. The Quran provides numerous rules and rituals that must be followed by Muslims and lays the groundwork for Sharia. Muslims believe that the Quran is the literal word of God they also believe that God cannot be discoverd from any aspect of human life. Therefore, traditional Islam is theocratic and seeks to chaffer the laws and rules of God upon everyone to help crack human spiritual fulfillment (Molloy, 2010). 2. What is the kinship between philosophy and theology within Islam? Is it acceptable for Muslims to live on separate philosophical and theological systemal beliefs?The relationship of philosophy and theology within Islam is as complicated as it is old. Many of the early philosophic questio ns had to be answered to ensure a uniform understanding of the Quran and its laws. However, these early philosophical questions were not truly philosophical because the question mixed religious revelations with human logic and reasoning. Aside from the philosophical questions that were asked during the emergence of Islam, most of the philosophical and theological questions that reach emerged have been the result of the expansion of Islam and its contact with other religions (Molloy, 2010).There is no clear answer to the question of whether or not it is acceptable for Muslims to hold separate philosophical and theological beliefs, because throughout the history of Islam the discussion if philosophy and theology changes from a liberal to a conservative approach, and back again. in the main speaking, Islam has two philosophical schools a liberal view that values human reasoning and sees it as a gift from God, and a conservative view that believes reason is false pride and favors inte llectual submission. Although Islam does have a jolly liberal faction that values reason and logic, for the vast majority of Muslims it is not acceptable to hold different philosophical and theological views. The majority of Muslims abandon rationalism and promotes complete submission to God, which includes intellectual submission (Molly, 2010). 3. What aesthetic themes are regularly expressed in Islamic art and architecture? How are these themes explored? How has the Quran influenced the development of art in the Islamic world?Several themes are apparent in both Islamic art and architecture, such as the serious and simplistic style and the use of negative space to direct an individuals attention to a specific area. Mosques can be large or small, grandiose or modest, bur regardless of the specific mosque or building, Islamic architects place a high value on space. The shaping of a building and the space symbolizes God, who is invisible but all over (Molly, 2010). Islam prohibits images of humans or animals, but despite that restriction, Islam has a vibrant artistic past. As with architecture, negative space is also used in art, but the theme that is most apparent in Islamic art is paradise. nigh Muslim art includes some aspect of paradise as it is depict in the Quran. One can find images or symbols of paradise on prayer rugs, paintings, and building architecture (Molloy, 2010).ReferencesFlesher, P. (n.d.). Exploring Religions. Islam Religious and Political Organization. Retrieved November 18, 2012, from http//uwacadweb.uwyo.edu/religionet/er/islam/iorg.htm Molloy, M. (2010). Experiencing the worlds religions Tradition, challenge, and change (5th ed.). New York, NY McGraw-Hill.